Financial Literacy Month: Should I Invest or Pay off My Mortgage?

Posted on April 2, 2025

The Investopedia Team

Feb. 26, 2025

The best option for a windfall of cash might be to invest it if a realistic rate of return significantly outpaces the interest being paid on the mortgage. However, there are other factors to consider. The pros and cons of paying off a mortgage early depend on the borrower’s financial circumstances, the loan’s interest rate, and how close the individual is to retirement.

Consider the interest cost that could be saved by paying off a mortgage 10 years early compared to various investment returns earned by investing the money in the market.

Key Takeaways

Whether paying off the mortgage early is a good choice can depend on your financial situation, the loan’s interest rate, and how close you are to retirement.
Paying off a mortgage has its benefits, but consider other factors such as the tax deductibility of mortgage interest and low loan rates.
Investing the money instead may generate higher returns than the loan’s interest cost, but markets also come with the risk of losses.

How Paying off a Home Affects Your Finances

Mortgage payments are made up of two components: interest on the loan and a principal amount that pays down the total outstanding balance. A $1,500 monthly payment might pay $500 toward interest. The other $1,000 will reduce the principal loan balance. Interest rates on a mortgage loan can vary depending on the economy and the borrower’s creditworthiness.

A loan payment schedule over a 30-year period is referred to as an amortization schedule. The payments for a fixed-rate mortgage loan mostly go toward interest in the early years. A larger portion of the loan payment is applied toward reducing the principal in later years.

Assume that you have a 30-year mortgage with a starting balance of $200,000 and a fixed interest rate of 3.50%. It would work out like this.

A larger portion of the fixed monthly payment goes toward paying interest during the first 10 years, but the percentage of the monthly payment that goes toward interest versus principal reverses as time goes on. More than $611 went toward principal while $286.64 went toward interest after 20 years. All but $2.61 of the last monthly payment went toward paying the principal balance.

The portion of the mortgage loan payment that’s applied to principal and interest changes over the years because the loan balance is higher in the early years and smaller in the later years. You’re paying interest on more of a balance in the early years. Less interest is owed as the monthly payments eventually reduce the outstanding loan.

How Much Interest Will You Save?

Some homeowners choose to pay off their mortgages early, and the benefits can vary depending on your financial circumstances. Retirees might want to reduce or eliminate their mortgage debts because they’re no longer earning employment income.

Let’s assume that a borrower has received an inheritance of $120,000. There are 10 years left on their mortgage. The original mortgage was $200,000 at a fixed interest rate over 30 years. This table shows what it would cost to pay off the loan 10 years early and how much interest would be saved based on three loan rates: 3.50%, 4.50%, or 5.50%.

The higher the interest rate, the larger the amount remaining on the loan will be with 10 years left on the mortgage.

Save Interest by Paying Off the Loan

The total interest cost for the 30-year loan would be $123,312 at the 3.50% interest rate. The borrower would save $20,270 by paying it off 10 years early.

Saving more than $20,000 in interest is significant, but the interest amount saved represents only 17% of the total interest cost for a 30-year loan: $103,042 in interest has already been paid in the loan’s first 20 years ($123,312 – $20,270), which accounts for 83% of the total interest over the life of the loan.

How Investing Affects Your Finances

It might be worth considering whether some or all of your money might be better off invested in the financial markets. The rate of return earned from investing might exceed the interest you’d pay on the mortgage over the final 10 years of the loan.

The “opportunity cost,” the foregone interest that could be earned in the market, should be considered. But many factors go into evaluating an investment, including the expected return and the risk associated with the investment. This table shows how much could be earned on $100,000 if the money was invested for 10 years based on four average rates of return: 2%, 5%, 7%, and 10%.

These investment gains were compounded. Interest was earned on the interest and no money was withdrawn during the 10-year period.

Investment Gains Vs. Loan Interest Saved

A homeowner would earn $22,019 based on an average rate of return of 2% if they invested $100,000 rather than use the money to pay down their mortgage in 10 years. There would be no material difference between investing the money versus paying off the 3.5% mortgage based on the $20,270 saved in interest from the earlier loan table.

But the homeowner would earn $62,889 if the average rate of return was 5% for the 10 years. This is more money than the interest saved in all three of the earlier loan scenarios whether the loan rate was 3.50% ($20,270), 4.50% ($28,411), or 5.50% ($37,618).

The borrower would earn more than double the interest saved from paying the loan off early, even with using the 5.50% loan rate, with a 10-year rate of return of 7% or 10%.

Repaying their mortgage rather than investing the money not only saves the borrower the interest they would have paid on the mortgage, but it also frees up money that otherwise would have gone to monthly repayments. This money could also be invested with the same rate of return.

Different Investments Come With Different Risks

Each type of investment comes with its own risk. U.S. Treasury bonds would be considered low-risk investments because they’re guaranteed by the U.S. government if they’re held until their expiration date or maturity. But equities or stock investments have a higher risk of price fluctuations, called volatility, and this can lead to losses.

There’s a risk that some or all your money could be lost if you decide to invest your money in the market instead of paying off your mortgage 10 years early. You would still have to make 10 years of loan payments as a result if the investment loses money.

The stock market can provide sizable returns, but there’s also a risk of sizable losses. Just as taking on more risk can magnify investment gains, it can also lead to more losses so the market risk is a double-edged sword.

A 10% investment gain isn’t an easy goal to achieve, particularly after factoring in fees, taxes, and inflation. Investors should have realistic expectations as to what they can earn in the market.

What the Experts Have to Say

Advisor Insight

Mark Struthers, CFA, CFP
Sona Financial, LLC, Minneapolis, MN

A lot depends on the nature of the mortgage and your other assets. If it’s expensive debt (that is, with a high interest rate) and you already have some liquid assets like an emergency fund, then pay it off. If it’s cheap debt (a low interest rate) and you have a good history of staying within a budget, then maintaining the mortgage and investing might be an option.

Some people’s instinct is to get all debt off their plate, but you want to make sure you always have ready funds on hand to ride out a financial storm. So the best course is usually somewhere in between: If you need some liquidity or cash, then pay off a large chunk of the debt, and keep the rest for emergencies and investments. Just make sure you take an honest look at what you’ll spend and your risks.

What Is Compounding Interest?

Interest “compounds” when it earns interest. Say you invest $100. That money earns you $5 in interest over a period of time. You’ll be paid interest on $105 if you leave that investment untouched because the interest is compounded. Interest earned on interest can magnify investment gains. This should be compared to how much interest you’ll save if you pay off your mortgage.

How Does the Tax Deduction for Mortgage Interest Work?

The interest you pay on a mortgage loan of up to $750,000 is tax deductible on your federal return subject to numerous rules. The limit drops to $375,000 if you’re married and you file a separate tax return.

The loan proceeds must be used to buy or build your main home or a second home, and you must itemize in order to claim this tax deduction. Itemizing isn’t always in a taxpayer’s best interest because they must forego claiming the standard deduction if they itemize. The standard deduction for their filing status can be more money coming off their taxable income than all their itemized deductions combined.

What Are Some Options Other Than Paying Off My Mortgage or Investing?

You might want to establish the security of an emergency fund to hedge against an ailing economy and to pay your mortgage should you experience financial distress. You might want to save for retirement instead, although this involves investing, too, such as in an IRA or 401(k). You could pay off credit card debt that carries a higher interest rate than your mortgage, particularly if your credit card balances are of a significant amount.

The Bottom Line

It’s important to consider the interest rate, the remaining balance, and how much interest will be saved before you decide to pay off a mortgage loan early. Borrowers can use a mortgage loan calculator to analyze the amortization schedule for their loans.

Another important thing to keep in mind is that mortgage interest is tax deductible for many homeowners. Interest paid reduces your taxable income at the end of the year.

Consult a financial planner and a tax advisor before deciding whether to pay off your mortgage early or invest that money. A professional can help you analyze your own personal situation and goals.

LeTort Trust does not provide tax or legal advice. The information presented here is not specific to any individual’s personal circumstances. To the extent that this material concerns tax matters, it is not intended or written to be used, and cannot be used, by a taxpayer for the purpose of avoiding penalties that may be imposed by law. Each taxpayer should seek independent advice from a tax professional based on his or her individual circumstances. These materials are provided for general information and educational purposes based upon publicly available information from sources believed to be reliable—we cannot assure the accuracy or completeness of these materials. The information in these materials may change at any time and without notice.

How Does A 401(k) Plan Work?

Posted on January 4, 2023

401(k) Plans

Qualified cash or deferred arrangements (CODAs) permitted under Section 401(k) of the Internal Revenue Code, commonly referred to as “401(k) plans,” have become one of the most popular types of employer-sponsored retirement plans.

How does a 401(k) plan work?

With a 401(k) plan, you elect either to receive cash payments (wages) from your employer immediately, or defer receipt of a portion of that income to the plan. The amount you defer (called an “elective deferral” or “pre-tax contribution”) isn’t currently included in your income; it’s made with pre-tax dollars. Consequently, your federal taxable income (and federal income tax) that year is reduced. And the deferred portion (along with any investment earnings) isn’t taxed to you until you receive payments from the plan.

Melissa earns $30,000 annually. She contributes $4,500 of her pay to her employer’s 401(k) plan on a pre-tax basis. As a result, Melissa’s taxable income is $25,500. She isn’t taxed on the deferred money ($4,500), or any investment earnings, until she receives a distribution from the plan.

You may also be able to make Roth contributions to your 401(k) plan. Roth 401(k) contributions are made on an after-tax basis, just like Roth IRA contributions. Unlike pre-tax contributions to a 401(k) plan, there’s no up-front tax benefit, but qualified distributions from a Roth 401(k) account are entirely free from federal income tax.

When can I contribute?

You can contribute to your employer’s 401(k) plan as soon as you’re eligible to participate under the terms of the plan. In general, a 401(k) plan can make you wait up to a year before you’re eligible to contribute. But many plans don’t have a waiting period at all, allowing you to contribute beginning with your first paycheck.

Some 401(k) plans provide for automatic enrollment once you’ve satisfied the plan’s eligibility requirements. For example, the plan might provide that you’ll be automatically enrolled at a 3% pre-tax contribution rate (or some other percentage) unless you elect a different deferral percentage, or choose not to participate in the plan. This is sometimes called a “negative enrollment” because you haven’t affirmatively elected to participate — instead you must affirmatively act to change or stop contributions. If you’ve been automatically enrolled in your 401(k) plan, make sure to check that your assigned contribution rate and investments are appropriate for your circumstances.

How much can I contribute?

There’s an overall cap on your combined pre-tax and Roth 401(k) contributions. You can contribute up to $22,500 of your pay (an additional $6,500 if you’re age 50 or older) to a 401(k) plan in 2023. If your plan allows Roth 401(k) contributions, you can split your contribution between pre-tax and Roth contributions any way you wish. For example, you can make $10,000 of Roth contributions and $9,000 of pre-tax 401(k) contributions. It’s up to you.

But keep in mind that if you also contribute to another employer’s 401(k), 403(b), SIMPLE, or SAR-SEP plan, your total contributions to all of these plans — both pre-tax and Roth — can’t exceed $22,500 ($29,000 if you’re age 50 or older). It’s up to you to make sure you don’t exceed these limits if you contribute to plans of more than one employer.

Can I also contribute to an IRA?

Your participation in a 401(k) plan has no impact on your ability to contribute to an IRA (Roth or traditional). You can contribute up to $6,500 to an IRA in 2023, $7,500 if you’re age 50 or older (or, if less, 100% of your taxable compensation). But, depending on your salary level, your ability to take a tax deduction for your traditional IRA contributions may be limited if you participate in a 401(k) plan.

What are the tax consequences?

When you make pre-tax 401(k) contributions, you don’t pay current income taxes on those dollars (which generally means more take-home pay compared to an after-tax Roth contribution of the same amount). But your contributions and investment earnings are fully taxable when you receive a distribution from the plan.

In contrast, Roth 401(k) contributions are subject to income taxes up front, but qualified distributions of your contributions and earnings are entirely free from federal income tax. In general, a distribution from your Roth 401(k) account is qualified only if it satisfies both of the following requirements:

It’s made after the end of a five-year waiting period
The payment is made after you turn 59½, become disabled, or die

The five-year waiting period for qualified distributions starts with the year you make your first Roth contribution to the 401(k) plan. For example, if you make your first Roth contribution to your employer’s 401(k) plan in December 2022, your five-year waiting period begins January 1, 2022, and ends on December 31, 2026. Each nonqualified distribution is deemed to consist of a pro-rata portion of your tax-free contributions and taxable earnings.

What about employer contributions?

Many employers will match all or part of your contributions. Your employer can match your Roth contributions, your pre-tax contributions, or both. But your employer’s contributions are always made on a pre-tax basis, even if they match your Roth contributions. That is, your employer’s contributions, and investment earnings on those contributions, are always taxable to you when you receive a distribution from the plan.

How should I choose between pre-tax and Roth contributions?

Assuming your 401(k) plan allows you to make Roth 401(k) contributions, which option might you choose? It depends on your personal situation. If you think you’ll be in a similar or higher tax bracket when you retire, Roth 401(k) contributions may be more appealing, since you’ll effectively lock in today’s lower tax rates. However, if you think you’ll be in a lower tax bracket when you retire, pre-tax 401(k) contributions may be more appropriate. Your investment horizon and projected investment results are also important factors. A financial professional can help you determine which course is appropriate for you.

Whichever you decide — Roth or pre-tax — make sure you contribute as much as necessary to get the maximum matching contribution from your employer. This is essentially free money that can help you reach your retirement goals that much sooner.

What happens when I terminate employment?

Generally, you forfeit all contributions that haven’t vested. “Vesting” is the process of earning the right, over time, to employer contributions. Your contributions, pre-tax and Roth, are always 100% vested. But your 401(k) plan may generally require up to six years of service before you fully vest in employer matching contributions (although some plans have a much faster vesting schedule).

When you terminate employment, you can generally take a distribution (all or part of which may be taxable to you), leave your money in your 401(k) plan (if your vested balance exceeds $5,000) until the plan’s normal retirement age (typically age 65), or you can roll your dollars over to an IRA or to another employer’s retirement plan that accepts rollovers, maintaining the tax-deferred advantages.*

What else do I need to know?

Saving for retirement is easier when your contributions automatically come out of each paycheck
You may be eligible to borrow up to one-half of your vested 401(k) account (to a maximum of $50,000) if you need the money
You may be able to make a hardship withdrawal if you have an immediate and heavy financial need. But this should be a last resort — hardship distributions are taxable events (except for Roth qualified distributions)
If you receive a distribution from your 401(k) plan before you turn 59½, (55 in certain cases), the taxable portion may be subject to a 10% early distribution penalty unless an exception applies
Depending on your income, you may be eligible for an income tax credit of up to $1,000 for amounts contributed to the 401(k) plan
Your assets are generally fully protected from creditors in the event of your, or your employer’s, bankruptcy

IMPORTANT DISCLOSURES
LeTort Trust does not provide tax or legal advice. The information presented here is not specific to any individual’s personal circumstances. To the extent that this material concerns tax matters, it is not intended or written to be used, and cannot be used, by a taxpayer for the purpose of avoiding penalties that may be imposed by law. Each taxpayer should seek independent advice from a tax professional based on his or her
individual circumstances. These materials are provided for general information and educational purposes based upon publicly available information from sources believed to be reliable—we cannot assure the accuracy or completeness of these materials. The information in these materials may change at any time and without notice.

Advanced Estate Planning for Women

Posted on December 22, 2022

You will need to think about the disposition of your assets at your death and any tax implications. Statistically speaking, women live longer than men. So if you are married, you’ll also probably have the last word about the final disposition of all of the assets you’ve accumulated during your marriage. You’ll want to consider whether these concepts and strategies apply to your specific circumstances.

Transfer taxes

When you transfer your property during your lifetime or at your death, your transfers may be subject to federal gift tax, federal estate tax, and federal generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax. (The top estate and gift tax rate is 40%, and the GST tax rate is 40%.) Your transfers may also be subject to state taxes.

Federal gift tax

Gifts you make during your lifetime may be subject to federal gift tax. Not all gifts are subject to the tax, however. You can make annual tax-free gifts of up to $17,000 (in 2023, $16,000 in 2022) per recipient. Married couples can effectively make annual tax-free gifts of up to $34,000 (in 2023, $32,000 in 2022) per recipient. You can also make tax-free gifts for qualifying expenses paid directly to educational or medical services providers. And you can also make deductible transfers to your spouse and to charity. There is a basic exclusion amount that protects a total of up to $12,920,000 (in 2023, $12,060,000 in 2022) from gift tax and estate tax.

Federal estate tax

Property you own at death is subject to federal estate tax. As with the gift tax, you can make deductible transfers to your spouse and to charity, and there is a basic exclusion amount that protects up to $12,920,000 (in 2023, $12,060,000 in 2022) from tax.

Portability

The estate of someone who dies in 2011 or later can elect to transfer any unused applicable exclusion amount to his or her surviving spouse (a concept referred to as portability). The surviving spouse can use this deceased spousal unused exclusion amount (DSUEA), along with the surviving spouse’s own basic exclusion amount, for federal gift and estate tax purposes. For example, if someone died in 2011 and the estate elected to transfer $5,000,000 of the unused exclusion to the surviving spouse, the surviving spouse effectively has an applicable exclusion amount of about $17,920,000 ($12,920,000 basic exclusion amount plus $5,000,000 DSUEA) to shelter transfers from federal gift or estate tax in 2023.

Federal generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax

The federal GST tax generally applies if you transfer property to a person two or more generations younger than you (for example, a grandchild). The GST tax may apply in addition to any gift or estate tax. Similar to the gift tax provisions above, annual exclusions and exclusions for qualifying educational and medical expenses are available for GST tax. You can protect up to $12,920,000 (in 2023, $12,060,000 in 2022) with the GST tax exemption.

Indexing for inflation

The annual gift tax exclusion, the gift tax and estate tax basic exclusion amount, and the GST tax exemption are all indexed for inflation and may increase in future years.

Income tax basis

Generally, if you give property during your life, your basis (generally, what you paid for the property, with certain up or down adjustments) in the property for federal income tax purposes is carried over to the person who receives the gift. So, if you give your $1 million home that you purchased for $50,000 to your brother, your $50,000 basis carries over to your brother — if he sells the house immediately, income tax will be due on the resulting gain.

In contrast, if you leave property to your heirs at death, they get a “stepped-up” (or “stepped-down”) basis in the property equal to the property’s fair market value at the time of your death. So, if the home that you purchased for $50,000 is worth $1 million when you die, your heirs get the property with a basis of $1 million. If they then sell the home for $1 million, they pay no federal income tax.

Lifetime giving

Making gifts during one’s life is a common estate planning strategy that can also serve to minimize transfer taxes. One way to do this is to take advantage of the annual gift tax exclusion, which lets you give up to $17,000 (in 2023, $16,000 in 2022) to as many individuals as you want gift tax free. As noted above, there are several other gift tax exclusions and deductions that you can take advantage of. In addition, when you gift property that is expected to appreciate in value, you remove the future appreciation from your taxable estate. In some cases, it may even make sense to make taxable gifts to remove the gift tax from your taxable estate as well.

Trusts

There are a number of trusts that are often used in estate planning. Here is a quick look at a few of them.

Revocable trust. You retain the right to change or revoke a revocable trust. A revocable trust can allow you to try out a trust, provide for management of your property in case of your incapacity, and avoid probate at your death.
Marital trusts. A marital trust is designed to qualify for the marital deduction. Typically, one spouse gives the other spouse an income interest for life, the right to access principal in certain circumstances, and the right to designate who receives the trust property at his or her death. In a QTIP variation, the spouse who created the trust can retain the right to control who ultimately receives the trust property when the other spouse dies. A marital trust is included in the gross estate of the spouse with the income interest for life.
Credit shelter bypass trust. The first spouse to die creates a trust that is sheltered by his or her applicable exclusion amount. The surviving spouse may be given interests in the trust, but the interests are limited enough that the trust is not included in his or her gross estate.
Grantor retained annuity trust (GRAT). You retain a right to a fixed stream of annuity payments for a number of years, after which the remainder passes to your beneficiaries, such as your children. Your gift of a remainder interest is discounted for gift tax purposes.
Charitable remainder unitrust (CRUT). You retain a stream of payments for a number of years (or for life), after which the remainder passes to charity. You receive a current charitable deduction for the gift of the remainder interest.
Charitable lead annuity trust (CLAT). A fixed stream of annuity payments benefits a charity for a number of years, after which the remainder passes to your noncharitable beneficiaries, such as your children. Your gift of a remainder interest is discounted for gift tax purposes.

Life insurance

Life insurance plays a part in many estate plans. In a small estate, life insurance may actually create the estate and be the primary financial resource for your surviving family members. Life insurance can also be used to provide liquidity for your estate, for example, by providing the cash to pay final expenses, outstanding debts, and taxes, so that other assets don’t have to be liquidated to pay these expenses. Life insurance proceeds can generally be received income tax free.

Life insurance that you own on your own life will generally be included in your gross estate for federal estate tax purposes. However, it is possible to use an irrevocable life insurance trust (ILIT) to keep the life insurance proceeds out of your gross estate.

With an ILIT, you create an irrevocable trust that buys and owns the life insurance policy. You make cash gifts to the trust, which the trust uses to pay the policy premiums. (The trust beneficiaries are offered a limited period of time to withdraw the cash gifts.) If structured properly, the trust receives the life insurance proceeds when you die, tax free, and distributes the funds according to the terms of the trust.

IMPORTANT DISCLOSURES
LeTort Trust does not provide tax or legal advice. The information presented here is not specific to any individual’s personal circumstances. To the extent that this material concerns tax matters, it is not intended or written to be used, and cannot be used, by a taxpayer for the purpose of avoiding penalties that may be imposed by law. Each taxpayer should seek independent advice from a tax professional based on his or her individual circumstances. These materials are provided for general information and educational purposes based upon publicly available information from sources believed to be reliable—we cannot assure the accuracy or completeness of these materials. The information in these materials may change at any time and without notice.